The Feast of Trumpets is Israel’s appointed day of trumpet-blowing, rest, and remembrance, pointing toward divine summons, warning, resurrection hope, and the coming kingdom.
The Feast Marked by Trumpets
Among the appointed feasts of the LORD in Leviticus 23, the Feast of Trumpets stands out because Scripture gives a brief command and very little explanation. It is called a sabbath-rest, a holy convocation, and a memorial of blowing of trumpets. Later Jewish tradition calls it Rosh Hashanah, the head of the year, but the Torah itself emphasizes trumpet blowing, rest, remembrance, and worship before the LORD.
The Hebrew expression often associated with this feast is Yom Teruah, the day of shouting or blasting. That does not make the feast empty or mysterious in a mystical sense. It means we must let the rest of Scripture teach us how trumpets function in Israel’s life. Trumpets gathered the congregation, signaled movement, sounded alarm, accompanied worship, marked appointed times, and announced God’s intervention.
Christians should study this feast with both expectancy and restraint. The trumpet themes point forward to resurrection, gathering, warning, judgment, and Christ’s kingdom. At the same time, Scripture does not authorize date-setting or the claim that the rapture must occur on a future Feast of Trumpets. The Lord calls His people to watchfulness, not calendar speculation.
Passages You Will Need to Study
The Feast Command
Leviticus 23 and Numbers 29 give the seventh-month, first-day command for trumpet blowing, holy convocation, rest, and offerings.
Trumpets in Israel
Numbers 10 explains trumpets for assembly, journey, alarm, war, worship, appointed feasts, new moons, and remembrance before the LORD.
Prophetic Trumpets
Exodus 19, Joel 2, Zephaniah 1, and Revelation 8-11 connect trumpet sounds with God’s presence, warning, judgment, and kingdom announcement.
Resurrection Hope
1 Corinthians 15 and 1 Thessalonians 4 connect the trumpet of God with the resurrection and transformation of believers at Christ’s gathering of the church.
The Command in the Law
Leviticus 23 places the Feast of Trumpets on the first day of the seventh month. Israel was to have a sabbath-rest, a holy convocation, and a memorial of blowing of trumpets. They were to do no customary work and offer an offering made by fire to the LORD.
Speak to the children of Israel, saying: “In the seventh month, on the first day of the month, you shall have a sabbath-rest, a memorial of blowing of trumpets, a holy convocation. You shall do no customary work on it; and you shall offer an offering made by fire to the LORD.”
Leviticus 23:24-25
Numbers 29 adds the offerings for that day and calls it a day of blowing the trumpets. The feast comes at the beginning of the seventh month, before the Day of Atonement and the Feast of Tabernacles. That placement matters. Trumpets introduce a solemn and joyful season that moves toward atonement, dwelling, and rejoicing before the LORD.
The seventh month was full of appointed worship. The first day sounded with trumpets. The tenth day was the Day of Atonement, when Israel was commanded to afflict their souls and the high-priestly ministry centered on cleansing and atonement. The fifteenth day began the Feast of Tabernacles, a week of dwelling in booths and rejoicing before the LORD. Trumpets therefore stands at the doorway of a sacred sequence. It awakens attention before atonement and dwelling.
Because Leviticus does not state the feast’s full reason, we should avoid pretending to know more than Scripture says. The safest way forward is to trace how God uses trumpets elsewhere. Scripture gives enough light for faithful study, but it does not turn the feast into a codebook for predicting dates.
The Trumpet in Israel’s Life
Numbers 10 gives the clearest explanation of trumpets in Israel’s national life. The LORD commanded Moses to make two silver trumpets. They were used for calling the congregation, directing the camps, sounding alarms, going to war, and marking days of gladness, appointed feasts, new moons, burnt offerings, and peace offerings.
Make two silver trumpets for yourself; you shall make them of hammered work; you shall use them for calling the congregation and for directing the movement of the camps.
Numbers 10:2
Numbers 10 also says that when Israel sounded an alarm in war, they would be remembered before the LORD their God and saved from their enemies. That does not mean the sound controlled God. It means God appointed the trumpet as part of covenant worship, order, remembrance, and dependence.
The same chapter says the trumpets were to be blown over burnt offerings and peace offerings at appointed feasts and at the beginnings of months. This means trumpets were woven into Israel’s calendar life, military need, worship, and movement through the wilderness. The sound was public. It was not private spirituality. It called the whole congregation to respond together before God.
This background helps explain the Feast of Trumpets. Trumpets gathered God’s people, moved the camp, warned of danger, marked worship, and called Israel to remember the LORD who remembered them. The Feast of Trumpets takes that familiar covenant sound and places it at the beginning of the seventh month as a whole day marked by holy attention.
The Trumpet at Sinai Announced God’s Presence
Before Leviticus 23, Israel heard a terrifying trumpet at Sinai. Thunder, lightning, thick cloud, and a very loud trumpet sound filled the mountain scene. As the sound grew louder and louder, Moses spoke and God answered by voice.
And when the blast of the trumpet sounded long and became louder and louder, Moses spoke, and God answered him by voice.
Exodus 19:19
The trumpet at Sinai was not entertainment. It announced divine presence, holiness, and covenant seriousness. The people trembled because the LORD was near. This helps us understand why biblical trumpets can carry both joy and fear. A trumpet may gather worshipers, but it may also warn sinners that the Holy One is coming.
Word Examination: Teruah, Shout, and Blast
The word often connected with this feast is teruah. It can describe a shout, alarm, battle cry, joyful acclamation, or trumpet blast, depending on context. That range is fitting. The feast is not reduced to one mood. It is a day marked by sound before the LORD.
Scripture also distinguishes instruments in different settings. Numbers 10 speaks of silver trumpets, while later discussion of Israel’s worship and holy days often brings shofar imagery to mind. The study should not become tangled in instrument speculation. The central point is God’s appointed sound of remembrance, summons, alarm, and worship.
Trumpets and the Day of the LORD
The prophets connect trumpet blasts with the Day of the LORD. Joel says, “Blow the trumpet in Zion, And sound an alarm in My holy mountain!” Zephaniah calls the great day of the LORD a day of trumpet and alarm against fortified cities and high towers.
The Day of the LORD is not a vague symbol for any difficult time. It is a prophetic complex of judgment, deliverance, Christ’s visible return, the kingdom, and final judgment. Near judgments in the prophets foreshadow the future climactic Day. Trumpets fit that pattern because they announce that God is intervening, judging pride, saving His people, and establishing His rule.
This gives the feast a sober edge. Trumpet sound can be joyful, but it can also be an alarm. A biblical trumpet does not flatter the world into thinking nothing will change. It announces that the LORD sees, remembers, judges, and saves. That is why prophetic trumpet passages should produce repentance and watchfulness rather than curiosity alone.
The Trumpet and the Resurrection of Believers
Paul connects a trumpet with the resurrection and transformation of believers. In 1 Corinthians 15, he says the trumpet will sound, the dead will be raised incorruptible, and the living will be changed. In 1 Thessalonians 4, the Lord descends from heaven with a shout, with the voice of an archangel, and with the trumpet of God; the dead in Christ rise first, and living believers are caught up together with them to meet the Lord in the air.
For the Lord Himself will descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of an archangel, and with the trumpet of God. And the dead in Christ will rise first.
1 Thessalonians 4:16
Unforsaken teaches that this gathering of the church occurs before the Tribulation. The trumpet of God here is a summons of hope for the church, not a signal that believers should fear the wrath of the coming Tribulation. The Lord gathers His people before the hour of trial, and that hope should produce comfort, holiness, and readiness.
Paul’s phrase “the last trumpet” in 1 Corinthians 15 should be read in Paul’s context. He is explaining resurrection, incorruption, and victory over death. He is not walking through the trumpet judgments of Revelation, which had not yet been given to John in the form we now have. The last trumpet is last in relation to the church’s resurrection and transformation hope. It announces completion for believers who belong to Christ.
This matters pastorally. The doctrine is given for comfort. Paul says believers should comfort one another with these words. The trumpet of God means the Lord has not lost a single one of His people. Graves do not silence His summons, and death does not hold those who are in Christ.
Matthew 24 and the Great Sound of a Trumpet
Jesus also speaks of a trumpet in Matthew 24. After describing the great Tribulation and the visible coming of the Son of Man, He says the angels will gather His elect with a great sound of a trumpet. This is a real trumpet-gathering passage, but its setting is the Olivet Discourse and the public coming after the Tribulation.
That means Matthew 24:31 should not be carelessly merged with 1 Thessalonians 4. The Bible can use trumpet language for more than one event. The church’s pre-Trib gathering is a blessed hope. Matthew 24 describes the Son of Man’s visible return and angelic gathering in that prophetic context. Keeping the passages distinct protects both texts.
Trumpets and Judgment in Revelation
Revelation 8-11 describes seven trumpet judgments during the Tribulation. These trumpets announce divine judgments on the earth and call attention to God’s authority over creation, waters, heavens, demonic torment, armies, testimony, and kingdoms. The seventh trumpet announces, “The kingdoms of this world have become the kingdoms of our Lord and of His Christ.”
Revelation’s trumpets should not be flattened into Paul’s last trumpet. Paul is comforting the church with resurrection and transformation. Revelation is revealing Tribulation judgments and the announcement of the kingdom. The shared trumpet imagery is meaningful, but context governs interpretation.
The seventh trumpet in Revelation is not a quiet private signal. It belongs to the unfolding judgments after the seventh seal and before the bowls of wrath. It announces the certainty of the kingdom even while further judgments remain in the book. That is different from the trumpet of God in 1 Thessalonians 4, where the Lord gathers His church. The Bible’s trumpet language is rich enough to include both hope for the church and judgment on the rebellious world.
Jewish Tradition and Rosh Hashanah
Later Jewish tradition associates this feast with the civil new year and calls it Rosh Hashanah. That tradition can help explain later Jewish practice, but it does not control the Torah. Leviticus 23 identifies the day as a memorial of blowing of trumpets, a holy convocation, and a rest day before the LORD.
Christians should be respectful and careful when discussing Jewish tradition. We should also be clear that Scripture is the final authority. The biblical emphasis is trumpet sound, remembrance, rest, worship, and the LORD’s appointed time.
This distinction protects the reader from two opposite errors. We should not mock later Jewish practice or pretend history does not exist. We also should not treat later tradition as though it has the same authority as Moses and the Prophets. The inspired text names the feast by its appointed sound before the LORD, and that is where the study must remain anchored.
Fulfillment, Watchfulness, and Guardrails
The spring feasts clearly point to Christ’s first coming: Passover, Unleavened Bread, Firstfruits, and Pentecost find major fulfillment in His death, burial, resurrection, and the giving of the Spirit. The fall feasts naturally draw our eyes toward unfinished prophetic hope. Trumpets especially directs attention to summons, alarm, resurrection, and the coming kingdom.
Still, we must not say more than God says. Scripture does not tell us that Jesus must gather the church on a future Feast of Trumpets. It does not permit date-setting from new moons, calendars, or feast cycles. Jesus said no one knows the day or hour. The feast teaches watchfulness, but watchfulness is not calculation. It is readiness for the Lord.
The typology is real, but it is servant, not master. The feast helps us notice biblical patterns of sound, summons, remembrance, and hope. Good typology bows to the text that God has given, so it strengthens obedience instead of feeding prediction schemes. It does not override the plain teaching of New Testament passages or erase the distinction between Israel, the church, and future Tribulation events.
The true center is Christ. Jesus physically bore the punishment for our sins in His innocent body through real torture, the shedding of His blood, and death. He was buried and rose bodily. The trumpet hope belongs to those who are His. The dead in Christ will rise, living believers will be changed, and the Lord will reign.
How We Respond to the Feast of Trumpets
First, listen for God’s summons in Scripture. The trumpet teaches that God gathers, orders, warns, and calls His people. We should be quick to obey His word.
Second, live watchfully without fear. The church’s hope is Christ Himself, not the ability to solve a calendar puzzle. The Lord will gather His people at the appointed time. Watchfulness means faithful service, clean hands, steady prayer, and love for His appearing.
Third, take judgment seriously. The trumpet alarms of the prophets and Revelation warn that God will judge rebellion. The gospel should be preached while mercy is offered. People need more than information about feasts; they need reconciliation with God through Christ.
Fourth, remember that God’s appointed times teach order. The LORD is not reacting to history in panic. He appoints seasons, keeps covenant, fulfills prophecy, and brings His purposes to completion. That steadies believers when the world feels unstable.
Finally, comfort one another with resurrection hope. The trumpet of God means the dead in Christ are not forgotten. The Lord remembers His people, raises them, transforms them, and brings them to Himself.
The Biblical Conclusion
The Trumpet Calls God’s People to Remember, Watch, and Hope
The Feast of Trumpets is Israel’s appointed day of trumpet blowing, rest, holy assembly, and remembrance before the LORD. Scripture gives the command briefly, but the whole Bible shows the meaning of trumpet sound: gathering, movement, alarm, worship, war, remembrance, divine presence, judgment, resurrection, and kingdom announcement. In Christ, those themes become full of hope. The church waits for the Lord Himself to descend with the trumpet of God and gather His people before the Tribulation. Israel’s prophetic future, the Day of the LORD, and the trumpet judgments of Revelation remain real. Therefore we study the feast with reverence and restraint. We do not set dates. We do not collapse every trumpet into one event. We listen, watch, preach the gospel, and comfort one another with the promise that the trumpet will sound and the Lord will reign.
Reflection Questions
What does Leviticus 23 actually command for the Feast of Trumpets?
How does Numbers 10 explain the role of trumpets in Israel’s life?
Why does the trumpet at Sinai help us connect trumpet sound with God’s presence?
What does the word teruah teach about shout, alarm, and blast?
How do Joel and Zephaniah connect trumpets with the Day of the LORD?
How do 1 Corinthians 15 and 1 Thessalonians 4 comfort believers?
Why should Matthew 24:31 be kept in its Olivet Discourse context?
Why should Revelation’s trumpet judgments not be collapsed into Paul’s last trumpet?
How can Christians appreciate Rosh Hashanah tradition while keeping Scripture primary?
What does watchfulness look like without date-setting?
How does the Feast of Tabernacles join exodus remembrance, harvest joy, Christ’s presence, and Israel’s future kingdom?
Primary Passages
Leviticus 23; Numbers 29; Deuteronomy 16 and 31; Nehemiah 8; John 1 and 7; Zechariah 14.
Unforsaken Conclusion
The feast remembers God’s wilderness care, celebrates His provision, reveals Christ, and will be kept by nations under the returning King.
Tabernacles Is the LORD’s Feast Before It Is Our Symbol
The Feast of Tabernacles closes Israel’s annual cycle by recalling the nation’s dependence upon God in the wilderness. It celebrates the produce He provided and commands His people to rejoice before Him. Israel gathered for sanctuary worship with hope fixed upon the LORD who dwells with His people. Scripture also calls it the Feast of Booths and the Feast of Ingathering.
Later customs and Christian applications can help illuminate the celebration, but they must not replace the commands God actually gave. The Torah specifies the dates and offerings. It also commands the use of branches and booths as Israel rejoices before the LORD. Pilgrimage belongs to the feast, as does a periodic public reading of the Law. Scripture does not command every practice later associated with Sukkot.
The feast also resists a theology that replaces Israel with the church. Jesus attended it and offered living water within its setting. In doing so, He revealed Himself. Zechariah still places the feast in the future, when the King reigns and surviving nations worship in Jerusalem.
The Feast Began on the Fifteenth Day of the Seventh Month
Then the LORD spoke to Moses, saying, "Speak to the children of Israel, saying: "The fifteenth day of this seventh month shall be the Feast of Tabernacles for seven days to the LORD. On the first day there shall be a holy convocation. You shall do no customary work on it. For seven days you shall offer an offering made by fire to the LORD. On the eighth day you shall have a holy convocation, and you shall offer an offering made by fire to the LORD. It is a sacred assembly, and you shall do no customary work on it. "These are the feasts of the LORD which you shall proclaim to be holy convocations, to offer an offering made by fire to the LORD, a burnt offering and a grain offering, a sacrifice and drink offerings, everything on its day– besides the Sabbaths of the LORD, besides your gifts, besides all your vows, and besides all your freewill offerings which you give to the LORD. "Also on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, when you have gathered in the fruit of the land, you shall keep the feast of the LORD for seven days; on the first day there shall be a sabbath-rest, and on the eighth day a sabbath-rest. And you shall take for yourselves on the first day the fruit of beautiful trees, branches of palm trees, the boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice before the LORD your God for seven days. You shall keep it as a feast to the LORD for seven days in the year. It shall be a statute forever in your generations. You shall celebrate it in the seventh month. You shall dwell in booths for seven days. All who are native Israelites shall dwell in booths, that your generations may know that I made the children of Israel dwell in booths when I brought them out of the land of Egypt: I am the LORD your God."' So Moses declared to the children of Israel the feasts of the LORD.
Leviticus 23:33-44
Leviticus calls it the Feast of Tabernacles and places its beginning on the fifteenth day of the seventh month. The later Jewish name for that month is Tishri, but the biblical passage simply says the seventh month.
Tabernacles came at the end of a concentrated autumn sequence. The first day of the seventh month was marked by trumpet blowing, and the Day of Atonement followed on the tenth. Tabernacles began five days later, when produce had been gathered. This calendar joins solemn remembrance of sin and atonement with the commanded joy of harvest and dwelling before the LORD.
The feast lasted seven days, with a sacred assembly on the first day and no customary work. An eighth day followed with another sacred assembly. The eighth day is connected to the feast but receives its own solemn character.
Sukkot is the Hebrew plural of sukkah, a booth or temporary shelter. “Tabernacles” in the English title refers to these booths and should not be confused with the Mosaic Tabernacle structure, though both contribute to the larger theme of dwelling with God.
The Eighth Day Was a Sacred Assembly Beyond the Seven Booth Days
Leviticus distinguishes the seven-day feast from the assembly on the eighth day. Israel brought an offering and did no customary work. Numbers 29 gives the day a smaller, distinct offering schedule.
Later Jewish tradition calls the day Shemini Atzeret, the assembly of the eighth. Scripture connects it closely to Tabernacles without commanding another day of dwelling in booths.
Some Christian schemes assign the eighth day a complete symbolic fulfillment. The text itself first asks readers to respect the calendar and worship God prescribed. Any wider pattern must remain subordinate to explicit revelation.
Ingathering Was One of Israel’s Three Pilgrimage Seasons
"Three times you shall keep a feast to Me in the year: You shall keep the Feast of Unleavened Bread (you shall eat unleavened bread seven days, as I commanded you, at the time appointed in the month of Abib, for in it you came out of Egypt; none shall appear before Me empty); and the Feast of Harvest, the firstfruits of your labors which you have sown in the field; and the Feast of Ingathering at the end of the year, when you have gathered in the fruit of your labors from the field. "Three times in the year all your males shall appear before the Lord GOD.
Exodus 23:14-17
God commanded Israel’s males to appear before the Lord three times each year. They came for Unleavened Bread and returned for the Feast of Harvest. The third pilgrimage was Ingathering. Later passages call the latter two seasons Weeks and Tabernacles.
Ingathering marked the collection of produce at the end of the agricultural year. Israel was to recognize that its fields and rain came from the covenant God. He also supplied the strength required for the harvest. None of these gifts came from Baal or human self-sufficiency.
Pilgrimage joined households and tribes at the place God chose. The feast extended beyond private household reflection. It belonged to Israel’s national worship under the law.
Booths Taught Later Generations to Remember the Exodus
Leviticus commands native-born Israelites to dwell in booths for seven days so their generations would know that the LORD made the children of Israel dwell in booths when He brought them from Egypt.
The temporary shelter turned history into bodily remembrance. A settled people left permanent houses to confess that security had once depended visibly upon God’s care in the wilderness and still depended upon Him.
Scripture does not specify every later construction rule. Nor does it say that each loaf or branch carried a secret code. The walls of the booth do not require invented meanings. The stated lesson is sufficient: the LORD delivered Israel and made them dwell in booths.
Beautiful Trees and Branches Became Instruments of Rejoicing
On the first day, Israel took fruit from beautiful trees. The people also gathered palm branches and boughs from leafy trees. Willows from the brook completed the gathering. With these in hand, they rejoiced before the LORD for seven days.
The command joins created abundance with worship. The leaves, fruit, and branches were not charms. Israel gathered these things before the Creator in glad recognition of His provision.
Later Jewish practice developed the familiar four-species arrangement. That history is relevant, but readers should distinguish the wording of Leviticus from later standardized procedure.
Rejoicing Included the Household and the Vulnerable
"You shall observe the Feast of Tabernacles seven days, when you have gathered from your threshing floor and from your winepress. And you shall rejoice in your feast, you and your son and your daughter, your male servant and your female servant and the Levite, the stranger and the fatherless and the widow, who are within your gates. Seven days you shall keep a sacred feast to the LORD your God in the place which the LORD chooses, because the LORD your God will bless you in all your produce and in all the work of your hands, so that you surely rejoice. "Three times a year all your males shall appear before the LORD your God in the place which He chooses: at the Feast of Unleavened Bread, at the Feast of Weeks, and at the Feast of Tabernacles; and they shall not appear before the LORD empty-handed. Every man shall give as he is able, according to the blessing of the LORD your God which He has given you.
Deuteronomy 16:13-17
Deuteronomy commands celebration after Israel gathered produce from the threshing floor and winepress. Sons and daughters shared in the joy. Servants and Levites were included as well. The celebration also welcomed strangers, fatherless people, and widows.
Biblical celebration is not selfish luxury. God’s blessing expands the table to include people without land or household security. It also welcomes those who lack ordinary protection. Forgetting them would contradict the Giver being thanked.
Every male appeared before the LORD and did not come empty-handed. Giving was according to the blessing received, not a performance by which Israel purchased future favor.
Numbers 29 Records a Costly Pattern of Daily Offerings
"On the fifteenth day of the seventh month you shall have a holy convocation. You shall do no customary work, and you shall keep a feast to the LORD seven days. You shall present a burnt offering, an offering made by fire as a sweet aroma to the LORD: thirteen young bulls, two rams, and fourteen lambs in their first year. They shall be without blemish. Their grain offering shall be of fine flour mixed with oil: three-tenths of an ephah for each of the thirteen bulls, two-tenths for each of the two rams, and one-tenth for each of the fourteen lambs; also one kid of the goats as a sin offering, besides the regular burnt offering, its grain offering, and its drink offering. "On the second day present twelve young bulls, two rams, fourteen lambs in their first year without blemish, and their grain offering and their drink offerings for the bulls, for the rams, and for the lambs, by their number, according to the ordinance; also one kid of the goats as a sin offering, besides the regular burnt offering with its grain offering, and their drink offerings. "On the third day present eleven bulls, two rams, fourteen lambs in their first year without blemish, and their grain offering and their drink offerings for the bulls, for the rams, and for the lambs, by their number, according to the ordinance; also one goat as a sin offering, besides the regular burnt offering, its grain offering, and its drink offering. "On the fourth day present ten bulls, two rams, and fourteen lambs in their first year, without blemish, and their grain offering and their drink offerings for the bulls, for the rams, and for the lambs, by their number, according to the ordinance; also one kid of the goats as a sin offering, besides the regular burnt offering, its grain offering, and its drink offering. "On the fifth day present nine bulls, two rams, and fourteen lambs in their first year without blemish, and their grain offering and their drink offerings for the bulls, for the rams, and for the lambs, by their number, according to the ordinance; also one goat as a sin offering, besides the regular burnt offering, its grain offering, and its drink offering. "On the sixth day present eight bulls, two rams, and fourteen lambs in their first year without blemish, and their grain offering and their drink offerings for the bulls, for the rams, and for the lambs, by their number, according to the ordinance; also one goat as a sin offering, besides the regular burnt offering, its grain offering, and its drink offering. "On the seventh day present seven bulls, two rams, and fourteen lambs in their first year without blemish, and their grain offering and their drink offerings for the bulls, for the rams, and for the lambs, by their number, according to the ordinance; also one goat as a sin offering, besides the regular burnt offering, its grain offering, and its drink offering. "On the eighth day you shall have a sacred assembly. You shall do no customary work. You shall present a burnt offering, an offering made by fire as a sweet aroma to the LORD: one bull, one ram, seven lambs in their first year without blemish, and their grain offering and their drink offerings for the bull, for the ram, and for the lambs, by their number, according to the ordinance; also one goat as a sin offering, besides the regular burnt offering, its grain offering, and its drink offering. "These you shall present to the LORD at your appointed feasts (besides your vowed offerings and your freewill offerings) as your burnt offerings and your grain offerings, as your drink offerings and your peace offerings."' So Moses told the children of Israel everything, just as the LORD commanded Moses.
Numbers 29:12-40
The offerings were extensive. The number of bulls decreased from thirteen on the first day to seven on the seventh, for a total of seventy. Rams and lambs were also offered each day. Grain and drink offerings accompanied them, along with the required sin offerings. The eighth day required its own assembly and a distinct schedule that included one bull.
Later interpreters associated the seventy bulls with the nations. Numbers does not state that symbolism, so it should remain a later inference rather than a revealed explanation.
Joy did not make holiness cheap. The feast required worship according to God’s command, and the repeated sin offerings reminded Israel that harvest abundance did not remove guilt.
Every Seventh Year the Law Was Read Publicly at the Feast
So Moses wrote this law and delivered it to the priests, the sons of Levi, who bore the ark of the covenant of the LORD, and to all the elders of Israel. And Moses commanded them, saying: "At the end of every seven years, at the appointed time in the year of release, at the Feast of Tabernacles, when all Israel comes to appear before the LORD your God in the place which He chooses, you shall read this law before all Israel in their hearing. Gather the people together, men and women and little ones, and the stranger who is within your gates, that they may hear and that they may learn to fear the LORD your God and carefully observe all the words of this law, and that their children, who have not known it, may hear and learn to fear the LORD your God as long as you live in the land which you cross the Jordan to possess."
Deuteronomy 31:9-13
In the year of release, Moses commanded the Law to be read before all Israel at Tabernacles. Men and women gathered to hear it. Little ones and strangers within the gates also listened. The reading taught everyone to fear the LORD and observe His words.
Harvest joy was therefore joined to revealed truth. Celebration without Scripture could drift into sentiment or imitation of pagan harvest rites. God’s people rejoiced as a people under covenant instruction.
Children who had not known the wilderness generation heard the law and learned holy fear. Memory required teaching; it was not preserved automatically by ancestry.
Nehemiah Records Rediscovery, Booths, Reading, and Great Gladness
Now on the second day the heads of the fathers' houses of all the people, with the priests and Levites, were gathered to Ezra the scribe, in order to understand the words of the Law. And they found written in the Law, which the LORD had commanded by Moses, that the children of Israel should dwell in booths during the feast of the seventh month, and that they should announce and proclaim in all their cities and in Jerusalem, saying, "Go out to the mountain, and bring olive branches, branches of oil trees, myrtle branches, palm branches, and branches of leafy trees, to make booths, as it is written." Then the people went out and brought them and made themselves booths, each one on the roof of his house, or in their courtyards or the courts of the house of God, and in the open square of the Water Gate and in the open square of the Gate of Ephraim. So the whole assembly of those who had returned from the captivity made booths and sat under the booths; for since the days of Joshua the son of Nun until that day the children of Israel had not done so. And there was very great gladness. Also day by day, from the first day until the last day, he read from the Book of the Law of God. And they kept the feast seven days; and on the eighth day there was a sacred assembly, according to the prescribed manner.
Nehemiah 8:13-18
After the exile, leaders found the booth command while studying the Law. The people gathered branches and made booths. Some built them on rooftops, while others used courtyards or public spaces. In this way, the restored community kept the feast.
Babylon had destroyed Jerusalem and the first temple and carried Judah into exile. Under Persian rule, a remnant returned, rebuilt the temple, and later restored Jerusalem’s wall. In Nehemiah 8 the wall project has given way to public attention to Scripture. Ezra reads the Law, the Levites help the people understand it, and the discovered feast command becomes practiced obedience rather than information left on a scroll.
Nehemiah says the returned community had not celebrated in this manner since Joshua’s days, and there was very great gladness. The statement emphasizes renewed obedience after long neglect rather than proving no Israelite had acknowledged the feast at any time in between.
Ezra read from the Book of the Law each day. The eighth day closed the sequence with a sacred assembly. This restoration brought understanding into action and produced joy.
Solomon Dedicated the Temple in the Seventh Month
Now Solomon assembled the elders of Israel and all the heads of the tribes, the chief fathers of the children of Israel, to King Solomon in Jerusalem, that they might bring up the ark of the covenant of the LORD from the City of David, which is Zion. Therefore all the men of Israel assembled with King Solomon at the feast in the month of Ethanim, which is the seventh month. So all the elders of Israel came, and the priests took up the ark. Then they brought up the ark of the LORD, the tabernacle of meeting, and all the holy furnishings that were in the tabernacle. The priests and the Levites brought them up. Also King Solomon, and all the congregation of Israel who were assembled with him, were with him before the ark, sacrificing sheep and oxen that could not be counted or numbered for multitude. Then the priests brought in the ark of the covenant of the LORD to its place, into the inner sanctuary of the temple, to the Most Holy Place, under the wings of the cherubim. For the cherubim spread their two wings over the place of the ark, and the cherubim overshadowed the ark and its poles. The poles extended so that the ends of the poles could be seen from the holy place, in front of the inner sanctuary; but they could not be seen from outside. And they are there to this day. Nothing was in the ark except the two tablets of stone which Moses put there at Horeb, when the LORD made a covenant with the children of Israel, when they came out of the land of Egypt. And it came to pass, when the priests came out of the holy place, that the cloud filled the house of the LORD, so that the priests could not continue ministering because of the cloud; for the glory of the LORD filled the house of the LORD. Then Solomon spoke: "The LORD said He would dwell in the dark cloud. I have surely built You an exalted house, And a place for You to dwell in forever."
1 Kings 8:1-13
Israel assembled to Solomon at the feast in the seventh month. Priests brought the ark into the inner sanctuary, and the cloud filled the house so they could not continue ministering.
The timing connected national joy with the LORD’s chosen dwelling and the completion of the temple. Solomon declared that he had built an exalted house for God, while his later prayer acknowledged that heaven itself could not contain Him.
The temple was a real covenant dwelling place of God’s name and glory, not a container that limited His being. Tabernacles kept together divine nearness and holy transcendence.
Water Drawing and Lamp Lighting Were Later Temple Customs
Jewish sources describe a Second Temple water-drawing and pouring celebration during Tabernacles, along with large lamps illuminating the temple courts. These practices provide valuable historical context for reading John.
These later customs are not commanded in Leviticus. They are also absent from Numbers and Deuteronomy. We should not write as though Moses instituted them or as though every detail is narrated in the Gospel.
Water already belonged naturally to the feast’s hope because Israel prayed for rain. It also recalled God’s wilderness provision. Prophetic rivers and cleansing added to the theme. Light belonged to the temple setting and Israel’s calling. Later ceremonies developed these themes before Jesus spoke within the feast.
The Eternal Word Became Flesh and Tabernacled Among Us
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things were made through Him, and without Him nothing was made that was made. In Him was life, and the life was the light of men. And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not comprehend it. There was a man sent from God, whose name was John. This man came for a witness, to bear witness of the Light, that all through him might believe. He was not that Light, but was sent to bear witness of that Light. That was the true Light which gives light to every man coming into the world. He was in the world, and the world was made through Him, and the world did not know Him. He came to His own, and His own did not receive Him. But as many as received Him, to them He gave the right to become children of God, to those who believe in His name: who were born, not of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God. And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld His glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth. John bore witness of Him and cried out, saying, "This was He of whom I said, "He who comes after me is preferred before me, for He was before me."' And of His fullness we have all received, and grace for grace. For the law was given through Moses, but grace and truth came through Jesus Christ. No one has seen God at any time. The only begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, He has declared Him.
John 1:1-18
John identifies Jesus as the eternal Word who was with God and was God, through whom all things were made. The Word became flesh and “dwelt” among us.
The Greek verb eskenosen can be rendered tabernacled or pitched His tent. John uses dwelling language to describe the real incarnation of the divine Son and the glory witnessed in Him.
This connection is substantial but should not be overstated. John does not say that the incarnation erased Israel or abolished the feast. He certainly does not turn every detail of a booth into a secret prophecy. Jesus is the personal presence and revelation of God among men.
Jesus Offered Living Water on the Last Great Day
After these things Jesus walked in Galilee; for He did not want to walk in Judea, because the Jews sought to kill Him. Now the Jews' Feast of Tabernacles was at hand. His brothers therefore said to Him, "Depart from here and go into Judea, that Your disciples also may see the works that You are doing. For no one does anything in secret while he himself seeks to be known openly. If You do these things, show Yourself to the world." For even His brothers did not believe in Him. Then Jesus said to them, "My time has not yet come, but your time is always ready. The world cannot hate you, but it hates Me because I testify of it that its works are evil. You go up to this feast. I am not yet going up to this feast, for My time has not yet fully come." When He had said these things to them, He remained in Galilee. But when His brothers had gone up, then He also went up to the feast, not openly, but as it were in secret. Then the Jews sought Him at the feast, and said, "Where is He?" And there was much complaining among the people concerning Him. Some said, "He is good"; others said, "No, on the contrary, He deceives the people." However, no one spoke openly of Him for fear of the Jews. Now about the middle of the feast Jesus went up into the temple and taught. And the Jews marveled, saying, "How does this Man know letters, having never studied?" Jesus answered them and said, "My doctrine is not Mine, but His who sent Me. If anyone wills to do His will, he shall know concerning the doctrine, whether it is from God or whether I speak on My own authority. He who speaks from himself seeks his own glory; but He who seeks the glory of the One who sent Him is true, and no unrighteousness is in Him. Did not Moses give you the law, yet none of you keeps the law? Why do you seek to kill Me?" The people answered and said, "You have a demon. Who is seeking to kill You?" Jesus answered and said to them, "I did one work, and you all marvel. Moses therefore gave you circumcision (not that it is from Moses, but from the fathers), and you circumcise a man on the Sabbath. If a man receives circumcision on the Sabbath, so that the law of Moses should not be broken, are you angry with Me because I made a man completely well on the Sabbath? Do not judge according to appearance, but judge with righteous judgment." Now some of them from Jerusalem said, "Is this not He whom they seek to kill? But look! He speaks boldly, and they say nothing to Him. Do the rulers know indeed that this is truly the Christ? However, we know where this Man is from; but when the Christ comes, no one knows where He is from." Then Jesus cried out, as He taught in the temple, saying, "You both know Me, and you know where I am from; and I have not come of Myself, but He who sent Me is true, whom you do not know. But I know Him, for I am from Him, and He sent Me." Therefore they sought to take Him; but no one laid a hand on Him, because His hour had not yet come. And many of the people believed in Him, and said, "When the Christ comes, will He do more signs than these which this Man has done?" The Pharisees heard the crowd murmuring these things concerning Him, and the Pharisees and the chief priests sent officers to take Him. Then Jesus said to them, "I shall be with you a little while longer, and then I go to Him who sent Me. You will seek Me and not find Me, and where I am you cannot come." Then the Jews said among themselves, "Where does He intend to go that we shall not find Him? Does He intend to go to the Dispersion among the Greeks and teach the Greeks? What is this thing that He said, "You will seek Me and not find Me, and where I am you cannot come'?" On the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus stood and cried out, saying, "If anyone thirsts, let him come to Me and drink. He who believes in Me, as the Scripture has said, out of his heart will flow rivers of living water." But this He spoke concerning the Spirit, whom those believing in Him would receive; for the Holy Spirit was not yet given, because Jesus was not yet glorified.
John 7:1-39
Jesus initially remained in Galilee because authorities sought to kill Him. He later went to the feast privately before teaching openly. Jerusalem filled with debate about His origin and authority. Ultimately, the dispute concerned His identity.
His unbelieving brothers wanted a public display, but Jesus refused to let their demand govern His timing. At the feast, some people called Him good while others accused Him of deception. Officers were sent to arrest Him, yet they returned without doing so because His teaching astonished them. The feast scene therefore combines public invitation with growing hostility: the living water is offered in the same setting where leaders are planning how to silence the Giver.
On the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus cried out to everyone who thirsts. He called them to come to Him and drink. The one who believes would have rivers of living water flowing from within. John explicitly explains that Jesus spoke concerning the Spirit, whom believers would receive after He was glorified.
The announcement naturally confronts feast water expectations and later water-pouring custom. The Gospel, however, does not say He timed the cry at the exact instant a priest poured water. That common reconstruction should remain a plausible historical setting, not an inspired detail.
Jesus’ Light Claim Belongs Near the Feast Setting
John 8:12 records Jesus saying He is the light of the world and that whoever follows Him will not walk in darkness. The received text retains the account of the woman caught in adultery between the feast debates and this declaration.
Later temple lamp-lighting tradition gives the statement a vivid possible backdrop. John does not explicitly name that ceremony in the verse, so the claim must stand first upon Jesus’ own identity.
He is not one lamp among many. The eternal Word gives light and life. Following Him is necessary, and opposition to Him reveals spiritual darkness even within a crowded religious festival.
The Church Receives Christ and the Holy Spirit Without Replacing Israel
Everyone who believes in Jesus receives eternal life and the indwelling Holy Spirit. The church knows God’s presence through the Son and Spirit. From the feast, believers can learn dependence and gratitude. Its generosity and pilgrimage also teach them to rejoice before God.
Participation in spiritual blessing does not make the church the new Israel or cancel the national promises. Zechariah’s future Jerusalem retains its ordinary meaning. So do the nations and the reigning King. The annual feast remains part of that prophecy.
Nor should the present age be called the complete fulfillment of Tabernacles. Christ has come in the flesh and the Spirit indwells believers, yet Jesus has not yet returned bodily to reign from Jerusalem over the nations.
Christians Are Not Commanded to Keep Israel’s Pilgrimage Feast
The apostles never require Gentile believers to travel to Jerusalem. They do not command them to construct booths or offer the sacrifices from Numbers 29. Salvation and sanctification do not depend upon feast observance.
A Christian may study or voluntarily commemorate biblical feasts as an act of learning and thanksgiving. Such practice must remain honest about what can and cannot be performed without the temple and priesthood, and it may not bind another believer’s conscience.
Using Hebrew terminology does not make anyone more accepted by God. Neither does observing a calendar or building a sukkah. Christ’s blood, received by faith, is the only ground of salvation.
Zechariah Places Tabernacles in Christ’s Future Earthly Kingdom
Behold, the day of the LORD is coming, And your spoil will be divided in your midst. For I will gather all the nations to battle against Jerusalem; The city shall be taken, The houses rifled, And the women ravished. Half of the city shall go into captivity, But the remnant of the people shall not be cut off from the city. Then the LORD will go forth And fight against those nations, As He fights in the day of battle. And in that day His feet will stand on the Mount of Olives, Which faces Jerusalem on the east. And the Mount of Olives shall be split in two, From east to west, Making a very large valley; Half of the mountain shall move toward the north And half of it toward the south. Then you shall flee through My mountain valley, For the mountain valley shall reach to Azal. Yes, you shall flee As you fled from the earthquake In the days of Uzziah king of Judah. Thus the LORD my God will come, And all the saints with You. It shall come to pass in that day That there will be no light; The lights will diminish. It shall be one day Which is known to the LORD– Neither day nor night. But at evening time it shall happen That it will be light. And in that day it shall be That living waters shall flow from Jerusalem, Half of them toward the eastern sea And half of them toward the western sea; In both summer and winter it shall occur. And the LORD shall be King over all the earth. In that day it shall be– "The LORD is one," And His name one. All the land shall be turned into a plain from Geba to Rimmon south of Jerusalem. Jerusalem shall be raised up and inhabited in her place from Benjamin's Gate to the place of the First Gate and the Corner Gate, and from the Tower of Hananel to the king's winepresses. The people shall dwell in it; And no longer shall there be utter destruction, But Jerusalem shall be safely inhabited. And this shall be the plague with which the LORD will strike all the people who fought against Jerusalem: Their flesh shall dissolve while they stand on their feet, Their eyes shall dissolve in their sockets, And their tongues shall dissolve in their mouths. It shall come to pass in that day That a great panic from the LORD will be among them. Everyone will seize the hand of his neighbor, And raise his hand against his neighbor's hand; Judah also will fight at Jerusalem. And the wealth of all the surrounding nations Shall be gathered together: Gold, silver, and apparel in great abundance. Such also shall be the plague On the horse and the mule, On the camel and the donkey, And on all the cattle that will be in those camps. So shall this plague be. And it shall come to pass that everyone who is left of all the nations which came against Jerusalem shall go up from year to year to worship the King, the LORD of hosts, and to keep the Feast of Tabernacles. And it shall be that whichever of the families of the earth do not come up to Jerusalem to worship the King, the LORD of hosts, on them there will be no rain. If the family of Egypt will not come up and enter in, they shall have no rain; they shall receive the plague with which the LORD strikes the nations who do not come up to keep the Feast of Tabernacles. This shall be the punishment of Egypt and the punishment of all the nations that do not come up to keep the Feast of Tabernacles. In that day "HOLINESS TO THE LORD" shall be engraved on the bells of the horses. The pots in the LORD's house shall be like the bowls before the altar. Yes, every pot in Jerusalem and Judah shall be holiness to the LORD of hosts. Everyone who sacrifices shall come and take them and cook in them. In that day there shall no longer be a Canaanite in the house of the LORD of hosts.
Zechariah 14:1-21
Zechariah describes the Day of the LORD with Jerusalem under attack. The LORD goes forth to fight, and His feet stand on the Mount of Olives. The landscape changes while living waters flow from Jerusalem. The LORD then reigns as King over all the earth.
This is not a poetic name for the present church age. Jesus will return bodily and defeat His enemies. He will restore Israel before reigning in the literal thousand-year kingdom revealed in Revelation 20.
Tabernacles belongs to that earthly reign. Its harvest and pilgrimage reach a public international expression under the Messiah. The worship and provision associated with the feast will center upon the King who dwells among His people.
Survivors From the Nations Will Worship the King
Everyone remaining from the nations that came against Jerusalem will go up year by year to worship the King, the LORD of hosts, and keep the Feast of Tabernacles.
Families that refuse will receive no rain, and Egypt is named with its own plague. These sanctions locate the prophecy in a mortal earthly order where nations can disobey and require discipline, not in the final state where rebellion is gone.
The prophecy also protects Israel’s identity and Jerusalem’s role. Gentile worship enriches rather than erases God’s promises to the nation.
The New Creation Brings God’s Final Dwelling With Redeemed Humanity
Now I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away. Also there was no more sea. Then I, John, saw the holy city, New Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband. And I heard a loud voice from heaven saying, "Behold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and He will dwell with them, and they shall be His people. God Himself will be with them and be their God. And God will wipe away every tear from their eyes; there shall be no more death, nor sorrow, nor crying. There shall be no more pain, for the former things have passed away." Then He who sat on the throne said, "Behold, I make all things new." And He said to me, "Write, for these words are true and faithful." And He said to me, "It is done! I am the Alpha and the Omega, the Beginning and the End. I will give of the fountain of the water of life freely to him who thirsts. He who overcomes shall inherit all things, and I will be his God and he shall be My son. But the cowardly, unbelieving, abominable, murderers, sexually immoral, sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars shall have their part in the lake which burns with fire and brimstone, which is the second death."
Revelation 21:1-8
After the Millennium comes the final rebellion. The Great White Throne judgment follows, and the former creation passes away. John then sees a new heaven and a new earth, along with the New Jerusalem.
The tabernacle of God is then with men. He dwells with them and removes death. Sorrow and crying disappear, and pain is gone. God makes all things new. This is the feast’s dwelling theme at its final horizon, though Revelation does not command feast observance in the eternal state.
We should not merge Zechariah 14 and Revelation 21. One includes nations disciplined by withheld rain; the other includes no more death and the irreversible exclusion of evil.
Our Present Mortal Body Is a Temporary Tent
For we know that if our earthly house, this tent, is destroyed, we have a building from God, a house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens. For in this we groan, earnestly desiring to be clothed with our habitation which is from heaven, if indeed, having been clothed, we shall not be found naked. For we who are in this tent groan, being burdened, not because we want to be unclothed, but further clothed, that mortality may be swallowed up by life. Now He who has prepared us for this very thing is God, who also has given us the Spirit as a guarantee. So we are always confident, knowing that while we are at home in the body we are absent from the Lord. For we walk by faith, not by sight. We are confident, yes, well pleased rather to be absent from the body and to be present with the Lord. Therefore we make it our aim, whether present or absent, to be well pleasing to Him. For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, that each one may receive the things done in the body, according to what he has done, whether good or bad.
2 Corinthians 5:1-10
Paul compares the present mortal body to an earthly tent and looks toward a building from God, a house not made with hands. His hope is not permanent disembodiment but mortality swallowed up by life.
The Holy Spirit is the guarantee of what is coming. Believers walk by faith while desiring to be with the Lord. As they await bodily resurrection, they make it their aim to please Him.
Calling the future body a vague “heavenly tabernacle” can obscure Paul’s contrast. God will do more than preserve a wandering soul; He will raise and transform the believer for embodied life with Christ.
Remember, Rejoice, Receive, and Await the King
Remember dependence. Permanent walls, full accounts, and stable routines remain gifts rather than guarantees. Thank the LORD for provision and include the vulnerable in your joy.
Receive Jesus Christ. He is the eternal Son who is fully God and fully man. He was born of a virgin and remained completely sinless. Wicked men physically tortured and punished Him on the cross, and He willingly bore that real punishment for our sins in His innocent body. He shed His blood for the whole world, died, was buried, and rose bodily from the grave. The Father did not punish, curse, abandon, strike, bruise, or pour wrath on Jesus.
God genuinely offers salvation to everyone, although people can resist and reject Him. Everyone who repents and believes in Christ is forgiven, justified, and born again. The believer becomes a new creation who is indwelt and sealed by the Holy Spirit and eternally secure. Eternal security never permits lawlessness, and a superficial profession does not prove that someone was truly born again.
Come to Christ and drink by faith. Walk by the indwelling Spirit, refuse legalistic confidence, and await the bodily return of the King who will fulfill every promise to Israel and the nations.
Remember
Confess Dependence
Let present provision call you back to the God who carried Israel.
Rejoice
Widen the Table
Include household, stranger, poor, and vulnerable people in grateful celebration.
Await
Look for the King
Hold Christ’s present indwelling and future earthly reign in their proper order.
The Biblical Conclusion
Tabernacles Remembers Wilderness Care and Anticipates the Reigning King
The Feast of Tabernacles began on the fifteenth day of Israel’s seventh month and lasted seven days, followed by an eighth-day sacred assembly. It came after the harvest and reminded settled Israelites that the LORD had made their ancestors dwell in temporary shelters after bringing them out of Egypt. Branches, fruit, offerings, pilgrimage, Scripture, and rejoicing all belonged to the celebration.
The joy was deliberately shared. Sons, daughters, servants, Levites, strangers, the fatherless, and widows were included. Numbers records seventy bulls across the first seven days, but Scripture does not say those bulls represented seventy nations. Every seventh year, the Law was read publicly. Nehemiah records renewed booth keeping and daily reading after exile, while Solomon’s temple dedication joined the seventh month with the glory of God’s dwelling.
Later water-drawing and lamp-lighting ceremonies can illuminate the setting of John’s Gospel, but they were not commands given through Moses. John explicitly tells us that Jesus offered living water at the feast and spoke of the Spirit whom believers would receive. The eternal Word had become flesh and dwelt among humanity. Jesus also declared Himself the light of the world.
The church receives Christ and the Spirit without replacing Israel or exhausting the feast’s future. Christians are not commanded to reproduce Israel’s pilgrimage and sacrificial calendar, and voluntary commemoration cannot justify a sinner or bind another believer’s conscience. Zechariah places Tabernacles in the future earthly reign of the Messiah, after the LORD stands upon the Mount of Olives and becomes King over all the earth.
That millennial setting must remain distinct from Revelation 21. Zechariah describes mortal nations that can disobey and lose rain. Revelation describes the new creation after final judgment, when death and pain are gone and God’s dwelling is permanently with redeemed humanity. Second Corinthians likewise directs believers beyond the present mortal tent toward resurrection embodiment. The feast calls us to remember God’s care, rejoice in His provision, receive Christ, walk by the Spirit, preserve Israel’s future, and await the returning King.
Reflection Questions
Which names and dates does Scripture give the feast?
What lesson did seven days in booths teach Israel?
Who was included in the commanded rejoicing?
Which symbolism of the seventy bulls is inferred rather than stated?
Why was the law read publicly during the sabbatical year?
What does Nehemiah reveal about restored obedience?
Which later customs must be distinguished from Torah commands?
How does John use dwelling language for the incarnation?
What does Jesus promise in John 7?
Why does the church not exhaust the feast’s meaning?
How do Zechariah 14 and Revelation 21 differ?
What present act of remembrance, joy, or hope should follow?